B+-+FROM+REPUBLIC+TO+MONARCHY,+1653-1667

**__THE PROTECTORATE (1653-1659) __** Below is a few cards from a satirical pack dating from the reign of Charles II. These cards would have been doubly illegal under Cromwell, for their defamitary opinions and for the fact that they were playing cards - a taboo in the Protectorate! This selection is directly related to the Protectorate, whilst others on this Wiki site are related to the topic they're attached to. Read the text to gain an insight into hat the immediate aftermath was towards the Interegnum. **Was the Protectorate designed and established as a long term solution with Oliver Cromwell in mind - or was it going to be an institution that could be passed on to a suitable condidate to effictively run the commonwealth as a President? The ironic icon of the Protectorate lies within the Coat of Arms, look at the //image above// and you will notice that it displays a similar style to the Coat of Arms of the Monarchies of England (including the present one today), suspiciously above all else is that a crown is included in the iconography - why include such a symbol of authority if there was a flat denial of accepting the crown? Did Cromwell intend for the Protectorate to return to a Monarchy - but with a new Cromwellian Royal Family. Monarchs in most societies were originally chosen on the basis of militray prowess until they became hereditary titles - surely there was nothing new in this form of leadership except for the name. Cromwell even accepted a sceptre and orb in his "coronation" ceremonies in Westminster Hall - sure signs of monarchy. **  **Many others who were disappointed included Republicans, Commonswealthsmen and Puritans, the poet John Milton explains his feelings through his work //Paradise Lost//, he is discussed on //In Our Time//.**
 * OVERVIEW OF TOPICS AND ISSUES** // • Cromwell as Lord Protector and theories of government; Republican, Royalist and military opposition to the Protectorate and Cromwell; the influence of radical religious groupings, including the Fifth Monarchists and Quakers; ideas of religious toleration; reactions to the rule of the Major Generals; Cromwell’s foreign policy, including overseas trade and the use of sea power // // • Republican divisions, 1658–1660; the failure of republicanism and the Restoration Settlement, 1658–1667 // // • Charles II and royal government to 1667; the role of Clarendon; Charles II’s relations with France and the Netherlands; the Second Dutch War; religious policies of Charles II, 1660–1667; the failure of opposition to Charles II, 1660–1667 //
 * Whilst a great soldier, Cromwell was not a constructive politician.
 * He did not initiate any of the constitutional experiments of the period. He was instead a religious visionary and his speeches (especially to parliament) make for very hard reading!
 * He was an effective politician because his own lack of practical ideas allowed him to blame others when things went wrong.
 * At the same time his control of the Army never wavered, so he was never in danger of being overthrown.

**So why turn down the "crown"? It would appear that those in the New Model Army, who held power through force would be in a position to depose a leader who had commited treason by re-establishing a system that they had fought hard to destroy and replace with something better. Surely if Cromwel were to accept the crown then the NMA would step in to remove him? In essence though the Protectorate would be a limited institution and power was truly with Oliver Cromwell because he held the respect and fear of the Army - therefore when he died, so too would the Protectorate and instability would once again return to England. Interestingly enough upon Cromwell's death his effigy, whilst lying in state, had a crown that was held above his head and descended upon it shortly before burial (//as seen below//) - would Oliver have approved? **

**A Royalist satirical engraving from the 1650s showing the system of government of the Commonwealth and the establishment of a standing army (the New Model Army) illustrating how the people of Britain are "liberated" from the oppression of monarchy by the new Republican system. **

**ESTABLISHMENT ** **After the dissolution of the Nominated Assembly it was decided by Major-General Harrison that Oliver Cromwell should be made Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, thus returning the Commonwealth to a traditional form of government. This was the first time in British history that there was a written constitution and with it Oliver Cromwell became the Instrument of Government. This Republican experiment had successes and failures, opinion is divided about whether or not this was a pleasant, good or effective period of England's history. We need to start considering what historians think about it and then you will need to have your own opinion. Start judging the Lord Protector!**

**The First Written Constitution of the Protectorate:** __**The Instrument of Government (1653) **__ **This was the first constitution given to Cromwell, the rules of his leadership, below is a Wordle of the entire document (this shows the more used words in the document in a larger font, and the less common words as smaller). Whilst it is not possible to get a summary of the document from a Wordle, what you might be able to pick out is the sort of tone of the document, "Parliament" clearly being focused on more than anything else, with "Protector" shortly behind. You can draw your own comparisons about the changes in Cromwell's regime by the time of the Humble Petition and advice from 1657, four years into his Protectorate. Has the tone and style of government in the 1650s changed much? If you would like to see the entire constitution, it is saved as a word document below both Wordles. **

**Instrument of Government 1653 came after failure of Rump and Barebones.**
 * Very few amongst Parliamentarians during the war were Republicans. They assumed that once the king was defeated, there would be a negotiated settlement.
 * Putting king on trial was a last minute decision by Army grandees after the Second Civil War.
 * Executing the king (‘this man of blood’) meant that monarchy would have to be abolished or one of his sons would succeed him.
 * Rump and Barebones were attempts to avoid writing a new constitution. Their failure led to adoption of the Instrument of Government.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Instrument established Cromwell as Lord Protector (he had refused the Crown) as the chief executive of the realm.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protector to be assisted by a Council of State (max 21 individuals) nominated by Protector.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Council of State would have power to nominate Protector's successor.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Parliament to meet every three years (triennial) and to meet for at least 5 months in each three-year period.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Parliament was now a single chamber (no House of Lords).
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Some changes in county franchise favours wealthier men at expense of old 40-shilling freeholder qualification.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">County seats redistributed to reflect county's tax burden rather than old 2 county MPs per shire.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protectorate parliaments to have 30 MPs each from Ireland and Scotland. Therefore first British parliaments.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protector had power to veto any bills contrary to the Instrument and 21-day suspensive veto on other bills.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protector also allowed to legislate via Ordinances until Parliament met AND first parliament not scheduled until Sept 54.



__**<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">First Protectorate Parliament (1654-5) **__
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Consisted of 400 MPs for England and 30 each for Ireland and Scotland.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protector demanded an oath of loyalty to the new constitution and 100 MPs excluded forrefusing.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">They believed that the Instrument itself was constitutionally invalid. Only parliament had the right to draw up a new constitution.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Most MPs concerned that Protectorate allowed too much religious liberty. They want an agreed doctrine for the Church of England and more oppressive measures against dissenters.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">MPs also shocked at high levels of taxation and want to reduce the size of the Army.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">MPs also attacked the Instrument and draw up constitutional bill of their own. This would have
 * reduced powers of Protector
 * downgraded role of Council of State
 * increased power of parliament.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">MPs also want to create a local militia system which would be controlled by parliament and which would undermine the power of the Army.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Parliament dissolved after 5 lunar months (shorter than calendar months) with no Acts passed

**<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: center;">Penruddock's Uprising (1655) **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**A Royalist conspiracy planned against the protectorate government with the intension of restoring the monarchy by force. English Royalists were too widely scattered in Scotland where there was support for the Royal family and insurgency in Scotland was suppressed by the New Model Army in July 1654. The exiled King Charles II commissioned some conspirators known as the Sealed Knot, their purpose was to work as a secret organisation to re-establish the monarchy (//in essence the French Resistance of the Second World War worked in a similar fashion//). In reality they had little success, the more militant Action Party attempted more organised rebellions with the aid of leading Royalists and members of society who had lost their faith in the Commonwealth.**

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**Whilst there was confusion amongst the pro-Royalist groups, royalist Cavaliers in the West Country decided to go ahead with a previously planned uprising (which the rest of the country had abandoned). Upon realisation of the abandoned plan they had made themselves look suspicious enough to be considered a problem. When an uprising was finally planned for March 1655 Charles was hopeful for a return from the continent when it was secure. However the spy network of the Protectorate meant that the plan was already known about and several key conspirators were arrested. Many garrisons were re-enforced and the chance of success was severely hampered. In spite of this the Earl of Rochester believed that it would still be widely supported by the people of England and so he went ahead with his Royalist plan.**

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**A significant royalist force of between one to three hundred men, led by Rochester assembled on Marston Moor. None of the Yorkshire locals felt strong enough to join them creating a blow to the moral of the rebels. Many of these men fled in fear of what would happen to them, similar accounts are known about in places such as Morpeth, Northumberland, Rufford Abbey in Nottinghamshire and Shrewsbury Castle in Cheshire. Whilst these uprisings in the north had fizzled out, the royalists in the south, led by Colonel John Penruddock, planned to seize control of Winchester in Hampshire. However with the re-enforcements of the garrisons, including the one at Winchester, Penruddock and his military advisor Wagstaffe hesitated, they switched to Salisbury for four days later.**

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**With some success and popularity Penruddock proclaimed Charles II as king before taking the High Sheriff of Salisbury as a prisoner. Marching West the 400 strong rebel force failed in their attempt to collect Royalist forces along the way through Dorset and Somerset. Cromwell mobilised the NMA in the region, appointing John Disbrowe as Major General of the West to put down the rebellion. Having reached the Devonshire town of South Molton Colonel Croke, based in Exeter managed to apprehend the group and dispersed the uprising with relative ease. Penruddock was captured and was tried for treason and sentenced to death. Twelve of the rebels were executed, including Penruddock who was beheaded at Exeter on 16 May. The remainder were transported to Barbados for hard labour.**

__**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">The Rule of the Major Generals (1655-1657) **__ **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">From October 1655, for a 15 months, Cromwell initiated a regionalised form of local administration, run by men who he could trust from the New Model Army. These Major-Generals would have a strong control over their region with the ability to perform specific functions and for particular objectives (//as seen in the map below//). This military government was in part established in reaction to the Royalist rebellion of Penruddock's Uprising and also because of the failure of Cromwell's civilian First Protectorate Parliament. Before this time the Commonwealth had hoped that the existence of Royalists would be acceptable and that they could reconcile their differences. But because there was still an exiled Royal family, there was still hope, therefore the various Royalist disturbances meant that it was necessary to take the precaution of setting up the martial government. The "Godly Nation" was yet to be established and perhaps by setting up this new martial law, the Commonwealth would have the inertia to actually make it happen. One of the most famous of these "Godly" elements was the banning of Christmas, this had already been enabled in the late 1640s but would now be hugely enforced, much to the dislike of the ordinary people. **
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals are at the heart of debates about how tyrannical and militaristic the regime was.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Commissions issued August 1655 partly because of Penruddock's Rising (March). This was a small-scale rising (400 rebels) and easily quashed when local militias raised 4,000 men to oppose it in two days!
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">After Rising, government declared that all royalists since 1642 were under suspicion. Wealthier royalists to pay decimation tax. Royalists not to come near London.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">By autumn, with more stories of Royalist conspiracies, government introduced Major Generals.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Army commanders had already been interfering in local government, so this was not entirely new.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Country divided into 11 military districts and Major Generals to raise new county militias made up of godly volunteers and regular soldiers to secure the peace and avert rebellion. Many volunteers had turned out against Penruddock in March.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals also charged with introducing godly reformation and in particular a reformation of manners amongst the people under their jurisdiction.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">They tried to suppress certain sports and other local gatherings while also controlling or closing down alehouses.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals certainly unpopular. Most were foreign to their military district (deliberately so), while the decimation tax, which paid for them seemed contrary to the 1652 Pardon and Oblivion Act, which had sought to quieten wartime antagonisms.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Impact of Major Generals on the localities pretty limited. Impact of decimation tax limited by high threshold for payment.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In Kent, only 91 out of 500 royalists liable to pay it. Second parliament takes 3 months before it discusses Major Generals

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Religion under the Protectorate**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">The religious situation under the Protectorate became more confused.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell, as an Independent did not want a coercive national church and this cut him off from Presbyterians as well as Anglicans.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Church under Protectorate therefore had no agreed doctrine/canon laws or Prayer Book. In addition no common liturgy.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Increasing number of 'gathered churches' appeared in 1650s, made up of those who believed themselves God's elect/saints.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Quakers growing in number-dangerous because they rejected the authority of scripture (the Bible) in favour of personal revelation. They rejected visible church and social hierarchy.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Elizabethan Prayer Book still used and many of the Protectorate clergy were old Anglican ministers hoping for better times.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell believed that if the Godly were given their chance, they would initiate the kind of Godly Reformation (deliberately a vague concept) that he and the Army had hoped would appear after the destruction of king and monarchy.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell always believed in God's ability to directly shape events. Therefore his policy was usually to ‘wait on the Lord’ and he had no clear, practical conception of how to bring together the different churches.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Material state of the church probably deteriorated.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Serious shortage of ministers - 700 benefices empty in Wales plus stipends often very low.

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The country was now to be divided into 12 regions controlled by these Major-Generals with only the Lord Protector himself in a position of greater seniority. They were successful at ensuring regional and therefore national security. However the attempts to make the Commonwealth a Godly Nation had varied success, depended upon the individuals who governed the regions. Some of the Major-Generals were more firm believers than others. **

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The establishment of such a high level of authority was not cheap and it was necessary to raise more funds for such an enterprise. Therefore the election of a Second Protectorate Parliament was necessary under the Instrument of Government, however with a harsh reputation it was feared that this Parliament would disband the Major-Generals, so between them they tried to influence the elections of the Parliament in order to secure their position. in spite of their attempts, in the opening session of this parliament, the MPs voted against a bill to maintain the Major-Generals and blocked the attempt to ensure that the decimation tax would be indefinite. As head of the country, and well aware of the unpopularity of the rule of the Major Generals, once again Oliver Cromwell would establish a way to make himself popular by abandoning the dominance of these men and return to a new written constitution, this time an amendment of the Instrument - The Humble Petition and Advice. ** __**<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">Second Protectorate Parliament (1656-8) **__
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Called a year early because of the desperate financial position of the regime. Debt increasing at rate of extra £250,000 per year.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals interfere in elections but 100 MPs excluded by the army because of their opposition to the Instrument and further 30 stay away in protest. House only 66% full.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Lots of opposition to Major Generals when army MPs introduce a bill to legalize the decimation tax on suspected royalists, which has been introduced to pay for the Major-Generals.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Bill defeated and Major Generals abolished. Cromwell claimed that he was not behind the scheme but that it was foisted upon him. Humble Petition and Advice devised by parliament in March 1657. In fact it was a new constitution and was introduced by second parliament.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Had support from Thurloe, some army grandees, most of the Council of State and most of the Commons.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Wanted Cromwell to accept title of king and bring back hereditary monarchy. He eventually refused because of pressure from Lambert, Fleetwood, Desborough and other Army grandees, who threatened to resign if he accepted kingship.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Set up 'Other' or 'Upper' House. = second chamber of 63 members like the House of Lords but members to be nominated by the Protector.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Assembly of Divines to be called by Cromwell to agree the doctrines of a national church. In the event Cromwell failed to honour his promise to do this.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Savage new laws against Catholics enacted.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Common and statute law to be observed.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Triennial parliaments or more frequent if needed. Purging of parliament only with Commons approval.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">The 2 Houses would have a veto on Protector's appointments to the Council of State.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Revenues to pay for the government to include a fixed amount to cover cost of army/navy and government. (In fact the sum suggested would not cover existing costs and would lead to increasing not diminishing government debt.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Religious freedom maintained BUT limits more strictly drawn.

__**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">The Humble Petition and Advice (1657) **__ <span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**Reinstated for a second term, Cromwell's rule was perhaps looking more like that of Charles I, the man he had replaced, many saw this as treason, going against all that he'd ever stood for, yet this is probably why he turned down the crown, though everything else about the title of Protector meant he was a King.** <span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Problems for new constitution in 1657**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Although Humble Petition had widespread support and Lambert was stripped of his offices and commissions because of his opposition, the new constitution failed to reintroduce effective parliamentary government.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Many of the loyal Army MPs were sent to the 'Other House' with life peerages and so could not defend the regime in the Commons.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Part of the new constitution allowed back into the Commons, those 100 MPs originally excluded in 1656. They now attack the new constitution.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Continuing squabbles in Commons leads to dissolution of parliament in 1658.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell was a great believer in ‘healing and settling’ but all his efforts had ultimately failed.







**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 14px;">Oliver Cromwell and His Parliaments - Hugh Trevor-Roper, The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century [1967] **

**The theories behind what sort of a Republic England should have resulted in much debate and discussion in the 1650s, including those by Thomas Hobbes, whose work //The Leviathan// is available to read in the Web Links and Publications tab. Hobbes is discussed on //In Our Time://**

__**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">Religious Toleration and Radicalism **__
 * One of the key issues of the Protectorate was Religious Toleration, for an in depth discussion, the link below is worth a listen.**

Of the many religious radical groups in British society at this time, many were seen to pose a serious threat. They had remained secretive underground movements until the time of the Civil War when censorship broke down. These groups were able to explain the way of the world where traditional mainstream versions of Christianity had not been able to. With the dawning of the English Revolution the tendency for people to see their political revolution as a step towards religious revolution was inevitable. But the actions of the Rump, the failure of Barebones and the oppression of the Protectorate forced these groups back underground. Hopeful of a more tolerant restored monarchy, radical groups came to loath the Interregnum as a missed opportunity. The groups below were often propogated as undesirables and dangerous individuals. The image below is a classic example:



__**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">Cromwell's Foreign Policy **__ In order to establish the Protectorate at home, it was necessary to protect the new regime from attack from abroad as well. The map below illustrates the hotspots for Cromwell and how successfully they dealt with the problems.



<span style="display: block; font-family: georgia,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: center;">QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION ABOUT CROMWELL'S PROTECTORATE <span style="display: block; font-family: georgia,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: center;">BETWEEN 1653-1658, WAS CROMWELL A BRITISH MILITARY DICTATOR BETWEEN? <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;"> **David Starkey looks back at the life of Oliver Cromwell, his rise from obscurity to regicide and Protector of the Commonwealth. Once you have watched hin interpretation of the sort of leader that he was make a direct comparison to how Barry Coward, who is a Stuart specialist tackles Cromwell head on.** **The eminant Historian Barry Coward, who died recently, posed this question about Cromwell and his leadership - in your own time listen to this lecture that he gave and make up your own mind. What does Coward think about Cromwell as a leader in the 1650s? Is it a fair perspective about Cromwell, do you think that the rise of Cromwell to such a position was inevitable, or perhaps at what point did his grasp on power become inevitable? Do we read history backwards and start to see things that were otherwise not anticipated?** media type="file" key="Was the Cromwellian Protectorate a Military Dictatorship.mp3" width="360" height="30" align="center"




 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In many ways the Protectorate was a military dictatorship
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Instrument of Government, which sets up Protectorate, is a constitution drawn up by a cavalry commander in New Model Army - John Lambert.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Gave Cromwell as Lord Protector greater powers than Charles I had.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell became Lord Protector because he is commander of the Army since the resignation of Fairfax.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">His power, reputation and meteoric political rise came about because of his victories in the field against Royalists (especially Marston Moor and Naseby) Irish and Scots.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell had already used military force to dismiss Rump (last vestige of a 'legal' parliament) in 1653 because it was threatening to hold a fresh parliamentary election. ‘You have sat too long for any good that you have done. In the name of God, go!’
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Nominated Parliament had been invented and largely nominated by army men.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell purged both of the Protectorate Parliaments of opposition MPs by force. 100 purged in 1654 and 130 in 1656. Both parliaments dismissed early/suddenly.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In 1655 parliament dismissed when it discussed setting up militias which would be controlled by parliament and which would replace the Army.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In 1658 parliament dismissed when MPs, purged earlier, returned and questioned the legality of the Humble Petition and Advice.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell ruled without parliament via Ordinances. Legality of these questioned by many.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">After first protectorate parliament, Cromwell governed by proclamations - these were illegal under the Instrument, since Ordinances could only be used until the meeting of the first parliament.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell as Lord Protector had greater constitutional powers than Charles I and he had a standing army.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cony's Case (1654) showed that Cromwell could be harsh on those who questioned these ordinances.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cony, merchant and religious radical, refused to pay customs duties, claiming that Cromwell's Ordinance on the matter lacked legality. Cony and his lawyers locked up!
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">When all else failed, Cromwell introduced the rule of the Major Generals (August 1655) in wake of Penruddock's Rising.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">England was divided into 11 military districts each ruled by a Major General including Lambert, Fleetwood and Desborough. Several of these men were related to him.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protector set up effective spy network under Thurloe. Also involved in more censorship of printing presses.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protectorate purged many town corporations, restricting membership of such bodies to the godly.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Military garrisons remained in place around the country.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Protectorate was always short of money and subject to mounting debts. In 1654 the debt for that year alone was £350,000.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">So, it is a period of high taxation. Protectorate starts with monthly assessment (National tax bill) of £90,000 per month.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">This was much higher than anything Charles I could have dreamed of. In 1655, Protectorate cut the monthly assessment to £60,000 per month - still a huge sum.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In addition English people had been paying very high taxes since onset of war in 1642!
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Many of those who shared power with Cromwell were related to him, giving sense of a military style monarchy to the Protectorate.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Fleetwood was his son-in-law; Desborough was a brother-in-law whilst Henry Lawrence and Edward Montagu were his cousins. Cromwell's sons Henry and Richard would also become powerful men.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">There was serious tension during Protectorate between Army Officers and civilian politicians. In times of crisis Cromwell backed the Army, realizing that this was his vital power base.
 * E.g. Cromwell refused the Crown in 1657 because of opposition of Lambert and other Army commanders. Cromwell himself said he would not ‘set up again, that which God had laid in the dust’ (i.e. monarchy). In other ways the Protectorate was not seriously oppressive/militaristic
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Army leaders always hoped to set up a civilian government with regular parliaments. Hoped that enough MPs would accept Instrument to make this constitution workable in the long term.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals not unduly repressive. Had limited military force and spent most of their time hunting for royalists and rebels.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Closing down horseracing and other sporting events was partly because Royalists usually frequented these events.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals were a measured response to the alarm caused by Penruddock's Rising and many rumours of royalist conspiracies.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles II in France was a serious threat to the regime and encouragement to Royalists.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Major Generals only temporary. Lasted from autumn 55 to winter 56. Proved very unpopular in second protectorate parliament, so abolished.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cromwell was not a bigot, nor was he especially vindictive towards his enemies. While the Army could be heavy handed, there was very little persecution.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Troubled situation after execution of king and serious divisions left over after terrible Civil War meant that a strong military government was the only way of keeping the peace.
 * NB Rump and Barebones had been established and sustained by the Army.



<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**Download here a contemporary newspaper with details about the death of Oliver Cromwell, remember as you go through the text that he had very recently died, not knowing what would come next or what to expect would give the opinions of the author a particular tone. Also keep in mind the fact that in an obituary of this sort it is common practice to praise or highlight one's good qualities and perhaps to overlook the negative ones, at least in the immediate present one is supposed not to "speak ill of the dead"!** <span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;"> media type="youtube" key="fZKy71YaVxU" height="315" width="560" align="center"

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">**An overview of the life and times of Oliver Cromwell from a different, but still historically accurate perspective with Mark Steel. Once you open it, please follow to watch the remaining two parts on YouTube.** media type="youtube" key="ThLSY2JJoQQ" height="315" width="560" align="center"

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"> <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;">__**<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">Collapse of the Interregnum 1658-60 **__
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Sparked off by Cromwell's death in September 1658.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Had nominated his son Richard as next Protector but he lacked his father's experience and influence with the army.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">May 1659, Army tried to calm political disintegration in the country by recalling Rump parliament of 1649-53, to give constitutional support for Army rule.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Failure of this scheme and growing sense of anarchy led General Monck to march his Army from Scotland to England.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Long Parliament recalled and agreed to Restoration of Charles II. Seemed only alternative to another round of Civil war or erection of another military dictatorship.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Protectorate of Richard Cromwell Sept 1658-May 1659**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Death of Cromwell in September 1658 robbed Republic of only man who could hold together the different groups in power.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Main split was between Army and those civilians who still believed in the Good Old Cause.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Richard Cromwell proclaimed Protector but he retires in May 1659, as Army took control.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Army upset about arrears in pay and at third Protectorate Parliament’s attempts to take control of Army.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Rule by restored Rump Parliament May to Oct 1659
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Army wanted Godly Reformation, Rump did not
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Rump attempted to sack Army leaders, Lambert and Desborough and to bring Army under civilian control
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Army leaders dissolve Rump and establish their own Committee of Safety to rule the country.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Rule by Committee of Safety Oct-Dec 1659**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Committee led by Army leaders in London dissolved itself after a few weeks.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Lambert, main architect left London to deal with opposition from Monck, Army commander in Scotland.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Navy and Irish Army declare for Rump

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Rule by Rump again Dec 1659-March 1660**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Rump returned but situation still deadlocked.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Rump got rid of some Army leaders - Fleetwood, Desborough and Lambert
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Monck marched on London and re-established Long Parliament by re-admitting those MPs excluded at Pride's Purge in 1648.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Long Parliament then dissolved itself in favour of fresh elections.

**__<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">THE RESTORATION OF THE MONARCHY - THE RETURN OF THE KING (April-May 1660) __** As the reign of King Charles progressed he met a series of obsticles over the first few years, aside from dealing with the regicides and developing his own style of court life, his marriage to his Portuguese princess, the development of tension and conflict with the Dutch, the concern of many still lay with religion - especially as Charles was allowing key members of his inner circle to be practicing Catholics - his mother Henrietta Maria, his brother James the Duke of York, his wife Catherine of Bragandza and his friend George Villiers. When in 1666 the Great Fire broke out in London, many people suspected that this was actually an act of arson. Watch the "Untold Great Fire of London" - find out for yourself. Luckily for Charles' reputation he was saved by turning on his most loyal aide, who would now be the scapegoat for things that had so far gone wrong - alas Edward Hyde, Clarendon, would disappear into exile for the remainder of his life. This would mark a significant turning point in Charles' reign.

The first twenty minutes from the TV mini-series: Charles II - The Power and the Passion. Although as a TV show we need to be cautious about its authenticity, the key figures to notice are Charles II, James Duke of York (the King's brother), George Villiers Duke of Buckingham (the King's friend, 5 years his senior), James Duke of Monmouth (Charles' illigitimate son), Edward Hyde Earl of Clarendon (Charles' advisor and father figure), Henrietta Maria (Charles' mother, the French princess and devout Catholic). If you look out for their relationsjip it will help to decide what their roles in their future would become. media type="youtube" key="EiYmj1iNF70" height="315" width="420"media type="youtube" key="5ijT1LBWO4Y" height="315" width="420"

**<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 15px;">Reasons for Restoration of Monarchy ** <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Restoration April-May 1660**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Main reasons were that: At crucial moment Charles II issued Declaration of Breda offering healing and settling rather than vengeance in a restored monarchy.
 * Army and parliament could not agree and distrusted each other.
 * Army was more powerful but leaders unwilling to set up a military dictatorship.
 * Gentry and landowners increasing worried by rise of the Quakers
 * They and Baptists seen as seditious and dangerous. Seemed to want to turn the world upside down.
 * Threat was minimal but in the circumstances of the time seemed much worse.
 * Problems made worse by economic downturn 1659-60.
 * A settlement that would be a compromise and would be moderate.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">On all sides there was determination not to slide back into Civil War
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">New Convention Parliament met
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles issued the **Declaration of Breda**. This offered general pardon except for a few regicides; parliament to decide what should happen to lands confiscated from royalists during the Republic; liberty for 'tender consciences' - some degree of religious toleration for Protestant Dissenters.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Parliament then voted to invite back Charles and re-establish monarchy.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Restoration Settlement - the Monarchy**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Convention Parliament and its successor Cavalier Parliament did impose some restrictions on power of restored monarchy.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Ship money still illegal
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission not restored
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Feudal rights - wardship and distraint of knighthood not restored.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">However other restrictions on power of monarchy imposed in 1641/42 were not brought back.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">There was a big contrast with Parliament's 19 Propositions of June 1642 (see Section A). Many realised that it was power of Parliament which needed curtailing.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Monarchy not parliament controlled the army - Militia Acts 1661 and 1662
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">King allowed to appoint his own ministers without reference to parliament
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">King retained veto on parliamentary legislation. Claim that parliament could legislate without the king made illegal.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act against tumultuous petitioning designed to put pressure on Parliament.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Triennial Act modified in 1664. No compulsion on monarch to call Parliament every three years.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act of Indemnity 1660 went a long way towards healing and settling
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Lands confiscated from Crown and Church were restored but only a few royalist estates were restored. Much bitterness about this but alternative might have been worse.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Crown voted an annual income of £1.2 million (more than Charles I could have dreamed of!).
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Excise tax retained to make up for lost feudal revenues, new hearth tax brought in BUT never effectively collected, so Crown still needed Parliament to top up income

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">The Declaration of Breda **

**<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">The Regicides ** This is an excellent docudrama that goes into a significant amount of depth of the trial of the regicides, with many examples of a case by case basis. media type="youtube" key="mhyuyu1Eu_4" height="436" width="859" align="center"

Or to watch it person by person it is broken down into smaller chunks here: media type="youtube" key="HwHYACApQDQ" height="315" width="560" align="left"

media type="youtube" key="JAuUVVOYkeE" height="315" width="560" align="left" media type="youtube" key="tUA_ZKvq-d4" height="315" width="560" media type="youtube" key="5ALXyRw8Pcs" height="315" width="560" media type="youtube" key="tpK1SjzfikI" height="315" width="560"

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Dealing with his father's killers, Charles II had made it clear in the Declaration of Breda that in order to maintain the stability and healing and settling of the nation, that the Regicides would not all come to harm, yet his decision to put them on trial and execute them was still a popular move to sweep away the last eleven years of tyranical rule of the Commonwealth. Given the incidents that would linger through time, even though perhaps not that serious at the time, the opposive rule of the Major Generals would be a low point of the Puritanical rule of Cromwell which the English people were keen to forget. Thus the King could do no wrong, his playboy attitude to life and allowances for the Earl of Clarendon (Edward Hyde) to take a lead in politics (in a similar way to how Henry VIII had let Wolsey have extensive power) made him an accessible king, a real man of the people who restored above all else, the joy to the realm. By treating the regicides in this harsh manner he won more friends, and made it clear to his people that he wouldn't be a push over - an essential method of control. Though how similar to his father he would become was not forseen at this stage, for now people were more pleased than ever with Charles as though the clock had been turned back to 1642, and all was forgiven.
 * Top of the list for trial and execution was of course Oliver Cromwell, even though he had died two years previously, this was no excuse in preventing him from going on trial. His body was exhumed from his elaborate tomb in Westminster Abbey, his body was strung up onto the gallows, which led to the traitors death of being hung, drawn and quartered. His body was thrown into an unmarked criminals grave whilst his head ended up on a spike over London Bridge for many years. The story of the travels of Cromwell's head is an interesting tale which can be discovered by clicking on the image of his head.**


 * //[[image:http://www.eyes-and-ears.co.uk/squaredog/images/cromwell_front.jpg width="240" height="318" align="right" link="@http://www.cambridgetimetraveller.com/live/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=285:the-strange-tale-of-oliver-cromwells-head&catid=2:cambridge-history&Itemid=3"]]The head of Oliver Cromwell, photographed in the 1960s prior to its burial at Cambridge University. Click on the image to find out the story of how it got there.//**

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">__**Charles II and royal government to 1667**__ <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Charles' personality**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles was personally charming and usually good humour
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">A wily politician - he knew how to influence men and also when to concede.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Converted to Catholicism on his deathbed but not before.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Main aim was ‘not to go on his travels again’. Political nation shared this ideal after traumas of Civil War and Commonwealth
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles was a participating monarch. Attended Privy Council meetings regularly.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Did not have strong principles (unlike his father Charles I) but was energetic and enjoyed good health.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Politically he was cautious which was an asset in these times.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Disliked paperwork but not lazy
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Fairly clever but not as intellectual as his grandfather (James I), which probably helped.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Had wide range of interests - witty and urbane.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Chose good ministers on the whole but prepared to sacrifice them if need be.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Religiously fairly tolerant but 400+ Quakers died in prison during his reign.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**The role of Clarendon**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Clarendon, (Edward Hyde) who had shared Charles' exile naturally became his Lord Chancellor and chief minister in the first part of his reign - mainly 1661-64.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">His daughter (Anne Hyde) married Charles' brother James, who was heir to the throne.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Thought to be behind the various Acts of Parliament, 1661-4, concerning religion (see religious changes below) known as the Clarendon Code, which re-established the supremacy of the Church of England.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In fact he was not heavily involved in the drafting of the legislation and it was given his name merely because he was the king's chief minister.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Clarendon was a useful mentor for Charles and stressed the need for caution and diplomacy in royal policy, so as to secure Charles' position and rouse as little opposition as possible.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Clarendon was important in drawing up many of the Acts designed to settle the realm after the shocks of civil war and commonwealth.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act for safety and preservation of the king's person.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act restoring bishops to the House of Lords
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act against tumultuous petitioning
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Militia Act
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act for regulating corporations
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Clarendon was impeached by the House of Commons in 1667 and forced to flee to France where he lived in exile.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Cause of downfall was the disastrous Second Dutch War 1665-7 (see below) and sending prisoners out of England, where they could be held without trial.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Also seen as arrogant by his political opponents, who resented his influence over the king.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Members of so-called Cabal, which succeeded his administration, had all been critics of Clarendon.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Charles II’s relations with France and the Netherlands**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">At first relations between England and the Dutch Republic were quite good.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles had been in exile in Low Countries. House of Orange had lent money to his father during Civil War.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Treaty signed with Dutch in 1662, in which outstanding issues between the two countries resolved. Most of the concessions were made by the Dutch.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">1663 Louis XIV of France laid claim to parts of Habsburg Southern Netherlands. Clarendon saw Louis as the main danger to English interests. But thereafter, growing hostility towards the Dutch
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Arlington and Duke of York hostile to Dutch trade and sea power supremacy (York was Lord High Admiral). Both hoped to gain from trade war with Dutch and seizure of Dutch trading posts.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Idea of war was popular in parliament. Dutch seen as threat to expansion of English trade and by 1664 Dutch ships were refusing to salute English flag at sea.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Lots of anti-Dutch propaganda reminded people of Amboyna massacre in 1623.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles not really in favour of war but thought that successful patriotic war might mean more support for his regime.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**The Second Dutch War (1665-7)**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">(First Dutch war was 1652-4 at time of the Commonwealth) War resulted in decisive Dutch victory.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">English did win first naval battle off Lowestoft but..
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">French now allied with the Dutch against England.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Dutch won naval battle in the English Channel - so called Four Days Battle 1666.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">1667 Dutch raided the river Medway at the mouth of the Thames and destroyed 15 ships at anchor. Royal Navy laid up because government had run out of money to put the fleet to sea.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">War meant that Charles had to sign humiliating peace with Dutch. Feared revolt at home after Medway Raid
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Clarendon, who had been against the war, was used as scapegoat and forced into exile.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles signed Triple Alliance with Dutch and Sweden; seen as a good Protestant alliance against France.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In fact, Charles probably hoped that this alliance would force Louis into alliance with England. Charles began diplomatic advances towards Louis just 3 months after signing it.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">__**Religious policies of Charles II, 1660-1667**__
 * Restoration Settlement - the Church**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Attempts to settle the tangled matter of a national church via a national conference failed. Worcester House Conference 1660 and Savoy House Conference 1661.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Episcopacy reinstated and bishops re-admitted to House of Lords
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Instead of a national settlement, local gentry and great landowners re-established much of the pre-war Church of England.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Many bring back Elizabethan Prayer Book and those Anglican ministers ejected during Civil War.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**Cavalier Parliament (1661-79)**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">passed so-called Clarendon Code, which re-established the Anglican Church but mainly tried to crush Dissenters - Protestants who would not conform.Code consisted of:
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Corporation Act 1661: Dissenters not allowed to hold town offices.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Act of Uniformity 1662 brought in New Prayer Book based on Elizabethan Prayer Book. Those ministers who refuse to use it forced out.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Quaker Act 1662: severe penalties for Quakers.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Conventicle Act: 1664 made it illegal to hold religious meeting of 5 or more people unless Prayer Book is used.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Five Mile Act 1664. No preacher who does not accept restored church to come within 5 miles of a town or city.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">It is easy to see this as a victory for the Church of Charles I and Laud and that was the intentionBUT as always, much of this legislation was not rigorously enforced.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">In fact there was de facto toleration for Dissenters and dissenting ministers provided they were not guilty of sedition or belong to Quaker or Baptist sects



__**<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 20px;">Natural Disasters or Punishment from God - The Great Plague (1665) and the Great Fire (1666) **__



<span style="display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: justify;">In many ways the Plague was a more serious disaster than the Fire - more people were killed by the Plague (a significant number more) and although the Fire devastated the city, destroying many buildings, homes and infrastructure, it swept away a medieval city and gave the King a chance to rebuild and modernise his capital. This was also a huge propaganda victory where he and his brother were made heroes and their temporal enemies were demonised further.

>
 * Whilst the portrayal of the fire is presented to us in this way, it is discussed in another on //In Our Time//.**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 15px;">The Great Fire of London 1666 increased fears of Catholic plot against the government.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles banished all Catholic priests
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">All recusants who refused oath to king's Supremacy over the Church were to be disarmed
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">All officers and soldiers who refused Supremacy oath dismissed.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Similarly the Medway Raid by the Dutch in 1667 provoked another backlash against recusants by the government, fearful of being accused of negligence.

<span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">**The failure of opposition to Charles II, 1660-1667**
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Opposition to Charles government and his restoration Settlement of these years was not that dangerous, though the government remained nervous about the possibility of revolt/rebellion.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Charles usually prepared to make concessions if he encountered serious opposition in parliament. 1662 withdrew his Declaration of Toleration (for those outside the Anglican Church) when it was attacked in parliament.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Rumours of plots against the government were many.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">One rising (Venner’s Rising) by 5th Monarchists in 1661 was not very serious in fact but it was centred in London and caught government by surprise.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">It provoked serious repressive measures and meat that government was always fearful of rebellion.
 * <span style="color: #000080; display: block; font-family: 'times new roman',times,serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">Parliamentary opposition to government measures and policies was taken seriously but Charles government had widespread support from the Cavalier parliament.